Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War
The history of African Americans in the American Civil War is marked by 186,097 (7,122 officers, 178,975 enlisted)Herbert Aptheker Negro Casualties in the Civil War The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 32, No. 1. (January, 1947), pp. 12. African Americans comprising 163 units served in the Union Army during the Civil War, and many more African Americans served in the Union Navy. Both free African Americans and runaway slaves joined the fight. On the Confederate side, blacks, both free and slave, were used for labor, but the issue of whether to arm them, and under what terms, became a major source of debate amongst those in the South. Union Army The issue of raising black regiments in the Union's war efforts was at first met with trepidation by officials within the Union command structure, Abraham Lincoln included. Concerns over the response of the border states (of which one, Maryland, surrounded Washington D.C.), the response of white soldiers and officers, as well as the effectiveness of a colored fighting force were raised.James McPherson, The Negro's Civil War, p.165-167Edward G. Longacre, "Black Troops in the Army of the James", 1863-65 Military Affairs, Vol. 45, No. 1 (February 1981), p.3 Despite official reluctance from above, a number of officers in the field experimented, with varying degrees of success, in raising black regiments, including David Hunter, James H. Lane, and Benjamin F. Butler.James McPherson The Negro's Civil War p. 165-167 On July 17, 1862, Congress passed two acts allowing the enlistment of African AmericansU.S. Statutes at Large XII, p. 589-92, but official enrollment occurred only after the September 1862 issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation. However, state and local militia units had already begun enlisting blacks, including the Black Brigade of Cincinnati, raised in September to help provide manpower to thwart a feared Confederate raid on Cincinnati. In actual numbers, African American soldiers comprised 10% of the entire Union Army. Losses among African Americans were high, and from all reported casualties, approximately 20% of all African Americans enrolled in the military lost their lives during the Civil War.Herbert Aptheker Negro Casualties in the Civil War pp. 16. Notably, their mortality rate was significantly higher than white soldiers; Early battles in 1862 and 1863 Infantry]] In general, white soldiers and officers believed that black men lacked the ability to fight and fight well. In October 1862, African American soldiers of the 1st Kansas Colored Volunteers silenced their critics by repulsing attacking Confederate guerrillas at the Skirmish at Island Mound, Missouri in October 1862. By August, 1863, 14 Negro Regiments were in the field and ready for service. At the Battle of Port Hudson, Louisiana, May 27, 1863, the African American soldiers bravely advanced over open ground in the face of deadly artillery fire. Although the attack failed, the black soldiers proved their capability to withstand the heat of battle, with General Banks recording in the his official report; "Whatever doubt may have existed heretofore as to the efficiency of organizations of this character, the history of this days proves...in this class of troops effective supporters and defenders."Official Record of the War of the Rebellion Ser. I Vol XXVI Pt. 1 p. 45 Fort Wagner, Fort Pillow, and beyond The most widely known battle fought by African Americans was the assault on Fort Wagner, South Carolina, by the 54th Massachusetts Infantry on July 18, 1863. The 54th volunteered to lead the assault on the strongly-fortified Confederate positions. The soldiers of the 54th scaled the fort's parapet, and were only driven back after brutal hand-to-hand combat. Despite the defeat, the unit was hailed for its valor which spurred further African-American recruitment, giving the Union a numerical military advantage from a population the Confederacy did not attempt to exploit until the closing days of the war. African American soldiers participated in every major campaign of 1864–65 except Sherman's Atlanta Campaign in Georgia. The year 1864 was especially eventful for African American troops. On April 12, 1864, at Battle of Fort Pillow, Tennessee, Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest led his 2,500 men against the Union-held fortification, occupied by 292 black and 285 white soldiers. After driving in the Union pickets and giving the garrison an opportunity to surrender, Forrest's men swarmed into the fort with little difficulty and drove the Federals down the river's bluff into a deadly crossfire. Casualties were high and only sixty-two of the U.S. Colored Troops survived the fight. Many accused the Confederates of perpetrating a massacre of black troops, and the controversy continues today. The battle cry for the Negro soldier east of the Mississippi River became "Remember Fort Pillow!" The Battle of Chaffin's Farm, Virginia became one of the most heroic engagements involving African Americans. On September 29, 1864, the African American division of the Eighteenth Corps, after being pinned down by Confederate artillery fire for about 30 minutes, charged the earthworks and rushed up the slopes of the heights. During the hour-long engagement the division suffered tremendous casualties. Of the twenty-five African Americans who were awarded the Medal of Honor during the Civil War, fourteen received the honor as a result of their actions at Chaffin's Farm. Discrimination in pay and assignments Although black soldiers proved themselves as reputable soldiers, discrimination in pay and other areas remained widespread. According to the Militia Act of 1862, soldiers of African descent were to receive $10.00 a month, with a optional deduction for clothing at $3.00. In contrast, white privates received thirteen dollars per month plus a clothing allowance of $3.50.McPherson The Negroe's Civil War p. 200 Many regiments struggled for equal pay, some refusing any money until June 15, 1864, when Congress granted equal pay for all black soldiers.U.S. Statutes at Large, XIII, 129-31 Besides discrimination in pay, colored units were often disproportionately assigned laborer workMcpherson Negroe's Civil War p. 198. General Daniel Ullman, commander of the Corps d'Afrique, remarked "I fear that many high officials outside of Washington have no other intention than that these men shall be used as diggers and drudges."Official Record Ser. III Vol. III p. 1126 African American contributions to Union war intelligence Blacks, both slave and free, were also heavily involved in assisting the Union in matters of intelligence, and their contributions were labeled Black Dispatches . , 1863. The scars are a result of a whipping by his overseer, who was subsequently fired by the master. It took two months to recover from the beating. Also called "Gordon" he enlisted in the Union Army]] Union Navy Like the army, the Union Navy's official position at the beginning of the war was ambivalence towards the use of either Northern free blacks or runaway slaves. The constant stream, however, of escaped slaves seeking refuge aboard Union ships, forced the navy to formulate a policy towards them.Steven J. Ramold Slaves,Sailors,Citizens pg. 3-4 Secretary of the Navy, Gideon Wells in a terse order, pointed out the following; In time, the Union Navy would see almost 16% of its ranks supplied by African Americans, performing in a wide range of enlisted roles.Ramold. Slaves, Sailors, Citizens pg. 55 In contrast to the Army, the Navy from the outset not only paid equal wages between white and black sailors, but offered considerably more for even entry-level enlisted positions.ibid pg. 82-84 Food rations and medical care were also improved over the Army, with the Navy benefiting from a regular stream of supplies from Union-held ports.ibid pg. 92-99 Becoming a commissioned officer, however was still out of reach for black sailors. Only the rank of petty officer would be offered to black sailors, and in practice, only to free blacks (who often were the only ones with naval careers sufficiently long to earn the rank).ibid pg. 76-77 Union relief workers "Approximately 10 percent of the Union’s female relief workforce was of African descent: free blacks of diverse education and class background who earned wages or worked without pay in the larger cause of freedom, and runaway slaves who sought sanctuary in military camps and hospitals."Jane E. Schultz "Seldom Thanked, Never Praised, and Scarcely Recognized: Gender and Racism in Civil War Hospitals" Civil War History, Vol. xlviii No. 3 pg. 221 Confederate States Army "Nearly 40% of the Confederacy's population were unfree...the work required to sustain the same society during war naturally fell disproportionately on black shoulders as well. By drawing so many white men into the army, indeed, the war multiplied the importance of the black work force."Bruce Levine. Confederate Emancipation:Southern Plans to Free and Arm Slaves during the Civil War p. 62 Even Georgia's Governor Joseph E. Brown noted that "the country and the army are mainly dependent upon slave labor for support."Journal of the Senate at an Extra Session of the General Assembly of the State of Georgia, Convened under the Proclamation of the Governor, March 25th, 1863, p. 6 The impressment of slaves, and conscription of freedmenBergeron, Arhur W., Jr. Louisianans in the Civil War, "Louisiana's Free Men of Color in Gray", University of Missouri Press, 2002, p. 109., into direct military labor, initially came on the impetus of state legislaturesBernard H. Nelson Confederate Slave Impressment Legislation, 1861-1865 The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 31, No. 4. (October, 1946), p. 393-4, and by 1864 six states had regulated impressment (Florida, Virginia, Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina, in order of authorization)ibid. p. 398 as well as the Confederate Congress.Confederate States of America, Journal of Congress, 1st Cong. 3rd Sess., III, p. 191. Slave labor was used in a wide variety of support roles, from infrastructure and mining, to teamster and medical roles such as hospital attendants and nurses.Levine, Confederate Emancipation p.62-63 The idea of arming slaves for use as soldiers was speculated on from the onset of the war, but not seriously considered by Davis or others in his administration.ibid. p. 17-18 As the Union saw victories in the fall of 1862 and the spring of 1863, however, the need for more manpower was acknowledged by the Confederacy in the form of conscription of white men, and the national impressment of free and slave blacks into laborer positions. State militias composed of freedmen were offered, but the War Department spurned the offer.Levine. Confederate Emancipation. p. 19 One of the more notable state militias was the all black 1st Louisiana Native Guard, a militia unit composed of free men of color. It was the first of any North American unit to have African American officersLouisiana Fast Facts and Trivia. The unit was short lived, and forced to disband in February 1862.Hollandsworth, James G., The Louisiana Native Guards, LSU Press, 1996.. The unit was "intended as a response to demands from members of New Orleans' substantial free black population that they be permitted to participate in the defense of their state, the unit was used by Confederate authorities for public display and propaganda purposes but was not allowed to fight."Hollandsworth, James G., http://www.coax.net/people/lwf/GUARD.HTM A Union army regiment was later formed under the same name after General Butler took control of the city . In January 1864, General Patrick Cleburne and several other Confederate officers in the Army of Tennessee proposed using slaves as soldiers in the national army to buttress falling troop numbers. Cleburne recommended offering slaves their freedom if they fought and survived. Confederate President Jefferson Davis refused to consider Cleburne's proposal and forbade further discussion of the idea.ibid. p. 596 In fact, a number of prominent generals dissented, including Howell Cobbibid. Series IV, Vol III, p. 1009, Beauregardibid. Series I, Vol. XXVIII, Pt. 2, p. 3, and Andersonibid. Series I, Vol. LII, Pt. 2, p. 598. Despite the suppression of Cleburne's idea, the question of enlisting slaves into the army had not faded away, but had become a fixture of debate amongst the columns of Southern newspapers and southern society in the winter of 1864.Levine, Confederate Emancipation pg. 4Thomas Robson Hay. The South and the Arming of the Slaves The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Vol. 6, No. 1. (June, 1919), p. 34. Representative of the two sides in the debate were the Richmond Enquirer and the Charleston Courier : On January 11, 1865 General Robert E. Lee wrote the Confederate Congress urging them to arm and enlist black slaves in exchange for their freedomOfficial Record. Series IV, Vol. III, p. 1012-1013.. On March 13, the Confederate Congress passed legislation to raise and enlist companies of black soldiers. The legislation was then promulgated into military policy by Davis in General Order No. 14 on March 23, 1865.Official Record, Series IV, Vol. III, p. 1161-62 The emancipation offered, however, was reliant upon a master's consent;"no slave will be accepted as a recruit unless with his own consent and with the approbation of his master by a written instrument conferring, as far as he may, the rights of a freedman"ibid Despite calculations of Virginia's state auditor, that some 4,700 free black males and more than 25,000 male slaves between eighteen and forty five years of age were fit for serviceStatement of the Auditor of the Numbers of Slaves Fit for Service, March 25, 1865, William Smith Executive Papers, Virginia Governor's Office, RG 3, State Records Collection, LV., only a small number were raised in the intervening months, most coming from two local hospitals-Windsor and Jackson- as well as a formal recruiting center created by General Ewell and staffed by Majors Pegram and Turner.Levine, Confederate Emancipation. p. 125. A month after the order was issued, the number was still "forty or fifty colored soldiers, enlisted under the act of congress"Richmond Whig, April 29, 1865. In his memoirs, Davis stated "There did not remain time enough to obtain any result from its provisions"Jefferson Davis, The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government. pg 518 African Americans in the CSA A few other lesser known Confederate militia units of free men of color were raised throughout Louisiana at the beginning of the war. These units included: the Baton Rouge Guards under Capt. Henry Favrot, portions of the Pointe Coupee Light Infantry under Capt. Ferdinand Claiborne, and the Augustin Guards and Monet's Guards of Natchitoches under Dr. Jean Burdin. The only official duties ever given to the Natchitoches units were funeral honor guard detailsBergeron, Arhur W., Jr. Louisianans in the Civil War, "Louisiana's Free Men of Color in Gray", University of Missouri Press, 2002, p. 107-109.. One account of an unidentified African American fighting for the Confederacy, from two Southern 1862 newspapersDaily Delta, August 7, 1862; Grenada (Miss.) Appeal, August 7, 1862, tells of "a huge negro" fighting under the command of Confederate Major General John C. Breckinridge against the 14th Maine Infantry Regiment in a battle near Baton Rouge, Louisiana, on August 5, 1862. The man was described as being "armed and equipped with knapsack, musket, and uniform", and helping to lead the attackBergeron, Arhur W., Jr. Louisianans in the Civil War, "Louisiana's Free Men of Color in Gray", University of Missouri Press, 2002, p. 108.. The man's status of being a freedman or a slave is unknown. Several African Americans are known to have participated in some capacity on the Southern side in the Battle of Gettysburg. After the battle of Gettysburg in July 1863, "reported among the rebel prisoners were seven blacks in Confederate uniforms fully armed as soldiers."New York Herald, July 11, 1863. Dr. Lewis Steiner, Chief Inspector of the United States Sanitary Commission while observing Gen. "Stonewall" Jackson's occupation of Frederick, Maryland, in 1862: "Over 3,000 Negroes must be included in this number troops. These were clad in all kinds of uniforms, not only in cast-off or captured United States uniforms, but in coats with Southern buttons, State buttons, etc. These were shabby, but not shabbier or seedier than those worn by white men in the rebel ranks. Most of the Negroes had arms, rifles, muskets, sabers, bowie-knives, dirks, etc.....and were manifestly an integral portion of the Southern Confederate Army." Ervin L. Jordan, Jr. Black Confederates and Afro-Yankees in Civil War Virginia (1995) Union Brigadier-General D. Stuart observed that "...the enemy, and especially their armed negroes, did dare to rise and fire, and did serious execution upon our men. The casualties in the brigade were 11 killed, 40 wounded, and 4 missing; aggregate, 55...."Ervin L. Jordan, Jr. Black Confederates and Afro-Yankees in Civil War Virginia (1995) The number of African-Americans, both slave and free, that served in the Confederate Army in a direct combat capacity was minor, and was never official policy. After the war, the State of Tennessee granted Confederate Pensions to nearly 300 African Americans for their service to the ConfederacyTennessee St. Library & Archives-Tennessee Colored Confederate Veteran Pension Applicationstranscript of Tennessee Colored Confederate Veteran Pension Applications. Discussions amongst CSA officers on the potential enlistment of slaves is highlighted in the section above. Confederate Navy Naval historian Ivan Musicant has written that there were blacks who served in the Confederate Navy. Muscicant wrote: United States colored troops as prisoners of war ]] Prisoner exchanges between the Union and Confederacy were suspended when the Confederacy refused to return black soldiers captured in uniform. In October 1862, the Confederate Congress issued a resolution declaring all Negroes, free and slave, that they should be delivered to their respective states "to be dealt with according to the present and future laws of such State or States"Statutes at Large of the Confederate State (Richmond 1863), 167-168.. In a letter to General Beauregard on this issue, Secretary Seddon pointed out that "Slaves in flagrant rebellion are subject to death by the laws of every slave-holding State" but that "to guard, however, against possible abuse...the order of execution should be reposed in the general commanding the special locality of the capture."O.R., Series II, Vol. VIII, pg 954 However, Seddon, concerned about the "embarrassments attending this question"ibid. Series II, Vol. VI, 703-704, urged that former slaves be sent back to their owners. As for freemen, they would be handed over to Confederates for confinement and put to hard labor."Treatment of Colored Union Troops by Confederates, 1861-1865" The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 20, No. 3. (July, 1935), pp. 278-279. Some have claimed that the experience of colored troops and their white officers in prison life was not significantly different than members of white units.ibid. 281-282. However, African American prisoners of war were forced to construct entrenchments around Richmond in 1864. There are no reports of white prisoners doing such forced labor under fire.Noah Andre Trudeau, Like Men of War: Black Troops in the Civil War, 1862-1865, New York: Little Brown and Co., 1998, p. 310-312. When Ulysses S. Grant became Commander of the Union Army, all exchanges were ceased. Union General Benjamin Butler later stated that: "He (Grant) said that I would agree with him that by the exchange of prisoners we get no men fit to go into our army, and every soldier we gave the Confederates went immediately into theirs, so that the exchange was virtually so much aid to them and none to us."The True Story of Andersonville,James Madison Page,1908 References See also *German-Americans in the Civil War *Foreign enlistment in the American Civil War External links *African Americans and the Civil War - slideshow by Life magazine Category:African Americans in the Civil War Category:Black history in the United States military Category:History of racial segregation in the United States Category:Military history of the American Civil War